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Signs and Symbols, used in English Language
What is the origin of various symbols used in English, and
when is the use of each appropriate? Here’s a guide to
twelve common signs, including how they developed and
in which contexts they are used or avoided.
& (Ampersand)
The ampersand was, at least until well into the nineteenth
century, treated as the twenty-seventh letter of the
alphabet, but its star has fallen, so that now it is used only informally except in registered names of businesses
(“Ay, Bee & See Inc.”), which should be written as rendered;
a comma preceding it is extraneous. The symbol comes
from the cursive formation of the Latin word et (“and”),
and the name is a slurring contraction of “and per se and,
” which used to terminate schoolroom recitals of the
alphabet:
The phrase means “and by itself and”; instead of reciting, “. . .
W, X, Y, Z, and,” children said, “. . . W, X, Y, Z, and per se and”
to clarify that “and” referred to a list item rather than serving
as a conjunction for an item that was left unuttered.
The symbol is also seen in &c. (“et cetera”), an alternate
form of etc.
American Psychological Association (APA) style allows the
ampersand to link author names in an in-text citation
(“Laurel & Hardy, 1921”), but other style guides call for
using the word and.
* (Asterisk)
The asterisk is used to call out a footnote or to refer to an annotation of special terms or conditions, to substitute for
letters in profanity (“Oh, s***!”) or a name rendered
anonymous (“the subject, M***”), to serve as a low-tech alternative to a typographical bullet, or provide emphasis
in place of boldface (“Do *not* go there —
the food is awful.”).
It also has many specialized technical usages. Its name
is derived from the Greek term asteriskos, meaning
“little star,” and it was originally applied to distinguish
date of birth from other references to years.
@ (At Sign)
Until the age of e-mail, the at sign was restricted mostly to commercial use, in purchase orders and the like, to mean
“at the rate of” (“Order 1K widgets @ $2.50 per.”). It’s also
used in displays of schedules for competitive sports to
identify the event venue. Now it’s ubiquitous in email
addresses and in social- networking usage, as well as
computer protocols, but outside of in those contexts,
it is considered inappropriate for all but the most
informal writing.
¢ (Cent)
This symbol for cent (from the Latin word centum, meaning “hundred”), unlike its cousin the dollar sign — it’s also used
in many monetary systems other than that of US currency
— is rare except in informal usage or for price tags. When
it does appear, unlike the dollar sign, it follows rather than precedes the numeral, though as in the case of the dollar
sign, no space intervenes. The equivalent usage in a context
where dollar signs are employed is to treat the amount as a
decimal portion of a dollar (“$0.99”); for clarity, a zero should always be inserted between the dollar sign and the decimal
point. The sign probably originated to distinguish an ordinary
c from one denoting a monetary amount.
° (Degree Sign)
The sign for degrees of arc or degrees of temperature, which
started out as a superscripted zero, was chosen for consistency
with use of the minute (') and second marks ('') employed in
geometry and geography; those symbols originally stood for
the Latin numerals I and II. The degree sign appears in technical
contexts, but in general-interest publications, the word degree
is generally used. In references to temperature, the symbol
(and the designation of the temperature scale) immediately f
ollows the associated numerical figure (“45°C”). This style is
true of many publishing companies, though the US
Government and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures prescribe a space between the number and the
symbol (“45 °C”), while other publications omit the first
letter space but insert another between the symbol and
the abbreviation (“45° C”).
” (Ditto Sign)
The ditto sign, first attested three thousand years ago,
signals that text shown above is to be repeated, as in a
list in which the same quantity of various materials is
intended to be expressed:
Apple 24
Banana ,,
Orange ”
The word ditto, meaning “said,” derives from the Tuscan
language, the immediate ancestor of Italian, but was
borrowed into English hundreds of years ago. The word,
its abbreviation (do.), and the symbol are considered
inappropriate for most writing, though the term has
often been used in informal spoken and written language
to mean “(the same as) what he/ she said.” Although the
symbol has a distinct character code for online writing,
straight or curly close quotation marks are usually
employed to produce it.
$ (Dollar Sign)
This symbol for the American dollar and many other
currencies was first used to refer to the peso, which
inspired the American currency system. Various origin
stories for the symbol come in and out of fashion, but
it’s most likely that it developed from an abbreviation of
pesos in which the initial p preceded a superscript s;
the tail of the initial was often superimposed on the s.
A dollar sign with two vertical lines is a less common
variant.Most books and other formal publications tend
to spell out dollars in association with a (spelled-out or
numerical) figure, but periodicals usually use the symbol,
as do specialized books about finance or business or
others with frequent references to money. In
international publications, when the symbol is used,
for clarity, it is combined with the abbreviation US
(“US$1.5 million” or “US $1.5 million”).
The dollar sign is also used as an abbreviated reference
to various functions in computer programming and
similar contexts.
# (Number or Pound Sign, or Hash)
This symbol evolved from the abbreviation for pound, lb.
(a literal abbreviation for the Roman word Libra, meaning “balance”), in which horizontal lines were superimposed
on the vertical lines of the letters, producing something
like the tic-tac-toe pattern used today. One of many others
names for the sign, octothorp (also spelled octothorpe or otherwise), was a jocular coinage by telecommunications
engineers in the mid-twentieth century. The symbol is
seldom used outside informal or highly technical or
otherwise specialized contexts.
% (Percent)
The sign for indicating percentage developed in the
Middle Ages over the course of hundreds of years,
beginning as an abbreviation of percent (from the
Latin phrase per centum, meaning “out of a hundred”).
Its use is recommended only in technical contexts or
in tabular material, where space is at a premium.
(Some standards authorities call for a space between
a number and this symbol, but most publications and
publishers omit the space.)
~ (Tilde)
The tilde is used as a diacritical mark over various letters
to indicate a variety of sounds in different languages,
but it also appears midline, like a dash (and is sometimes
called a swung dash), to denote “approximately (“Last
night’s attendance: ~100”). It has technical connotations
as well and is even used as a notation for recording
sequences of action in juggling. The name, borrowed
into English through Portuguese and Spanish from Latin,
means “title.”
/ (Slash, Solidus, Stroke, or Virgule)
During the Middle Ages, this sign of many names,
including those listed above, served as a comma; a
pair denoted a dash. The double slash was eventually
tipped horizontally to become an equal sign and later
a dash or hyphen. (The equal sign is still used as a
proof-reader’s mark to indicate insertion of a hyphen.)
The slash — also called the forward slash to distinguish it
from the backslash, which is used only in technical contexts
— is an informal substitute for or.
_ (Underscore or Under strike)
This artefact from the era of the typewriter was used on
such devices to underline words to indicate emphasis in
lieu of italics.
As a survival of that function, words are sometimes
bracketed by a pair of single underscores in email and
other computer contexts to mark a word for emphasis
(“That band totally _rocked_ the place.”). Indeed, as I
typed this post in Microsoft Word, the program
automatically converted rocked to italics. The symbol
also appears frequently in email and website addresses
and other technical contexts.
